Geographical Jousting in Colonial Virginia

 

Joshua Fry and Peter Jefferson's "A Map of the most Inhabited part of Virginia containing the whole province of Maryland with part of Pennsilvania, New Jersey and North Carolina" is certainly the most important 18th century map of Virginia and arguably one of the most important documents relating to Colonial Virginia.

  

This map has an important and interesting historical background. In 1750, the Earl of Halifax, newly installed as the President of the Board of Trade, was convinced that the French had encroached on British territory in North America contrary to the Treaty of Utrecht of 1713 which settled the War of the Spanish Succession. He requested the governors of British colonies to provide maps of their territories to confirm these encroachments.  The requests met with mixed success but acting Governor Lewis Burwell of Virginia, possibly looking to make his position permanent, was determined to comply with the Earl's wishes and commissioned the surveyors Joshua Fry and Peter Jefferson to supply this map.

 

The two men were very well suited to the task. Joshua Fry was a mathematician from the College of William and Mary. Peter Jefferson was a professional surveyor. They had worked together on two projects previously: the first was the surveying of the Fairfax Line or the western border of the lands of Lord Fairfax, the largest landowner in Virginia and the other was the survey of the border between North Carolina and Virginia in 1749. This last expedition was made under great hardship, cementing both the friendship and working relationship between the two men.

 

  

 

Once the commission of the map was finalised, Fry and Jefferson had to act very quickly. The compilation of the map took only approximately six months, therefore it is surmised that no new surveys were made for its composition; rather the two men used their existing manuscripts together with further information they purchased or obtained from their professional colleagues as well as receiving access to plans and regional maps from local landowners. Both men were highly respected in their field and they had Burwell's influence and support, ensuring a high degree of co-operation. 

 

The integration of these sources resulted in a map which immediately became the source map of Virginia for many influential map makers from the mid 18^th century onwards. These included John Mitchell, whose map of the eastern part of North America outlined British claims to the continent just prior to the French-Indian War; John Henry who produced the first map of Virginia with county boundaries; and President Thomas Jefferson, son of Peter Jefferson, who bound a map strongly influenced by his father's work in his "Notes on the State of Virginia".

 

Amongst the many geographical achievements of this map is the first to show any detail of Virginia beyond the tidewater, the first to claim any accuracy on the position of the Blue Ridge Mountains and after 1755, the first to show the road network of the colony; as an aside, the image of tobacco commerce on the cartouche present on the lower right is also one of the earliest to illustrate this new commodity.

 

 

 

Beyond geographical outlines, the map acts as a directory of some of the most illustrious names in American history. One of its most important features is the placement of many of the major plantations of Virginia whose owners left legacies which are relevant to this day.

 

On the north of the James River, in Charles City County, the Westover Plantation is marked. This was the seat of the family of William Byrd; Colonel William Byrd II was the founder of Richmond and Petersburg.

 

However, the most illustrious name of all is shown a short distance south of Belhaven or Alexandria. Next to Little Hunting Creek, flowing into the Potomac River, the name "Washington" can be found. Little Hunting Creek was the original name of the plantation of the Washington family but it would shortly be renamed Mount Vernon. The plantation was inherited by Lawrence Washington, George Washington's half-brother, who would then become his guardian after the death of his father at age 11. Lawrence re-named the plantation after his commanding officer, Vice Admiral Edward Vernon under whom he served in the Caribbean during the War of Jenkins Ear.

 

5 - Virginia - Fry Jefferson 1775 - Detail, Westover Plantation [USA6107]	6 - Virginia - Fry Jefferson 1775 - Detail, Little Hunting Creek Plantation [USA6107]

 

 

The map also makes an emphasis of marking the possessions of the Fairfax family, including their "fine lands" as well as their "manor" and plantation. Anne Fairfax was Lawrence's wife. Their household would become one of the foremost gathering places of Virginia frequented by the great and the powerful of the Colony. Aided by his father in law, Lawrence would become the founder of Alexandria as well as one of the founder members of the Ohio Company.

 

7 - Virginia - Fry Jefferson 1775 - Detail, Fairfax Manor, and Plantation [USA6107]

 

As soon as the map was finished, it was given to Governor Burwell who forwarded it to London. Fry and Jefferson were paid 150 pounds each for their role.

 

Publication History

 

Once in London, the map was entrusted into the care of the experienced Thomas Jefferys, cartographer to the Prince of Wales later George III. He began preparation for its publication; it took approximately two years to prepare the first issue.  Although the first edition of the map bears the date 1751, it was not published until probably 1753; it is not known what caused the delay although it is likely that the British government and the Board of Trade would have needed a substantial amount of time to study and deliberate over this newly acquired geographical information.

 

Another edition was published shortly after, in 1754 and two more were issued in 1755. These first four editions bear substantial geographical revisions and additions, particularly the last edition of 1755, sometimes known as the "Dalrymple edition".

 

The Dalrymple Edition

 

These particular updates were provided by additional information forwarded by Joshua Fry and Christopher Gist, gathered from a new expedition to western Virginia in 1752. Captain John Dalrymple, quartermaster to this expedition, was a further donor of vital information to this new issue and also acted as a courier for the updates which reached the government in London in 1754.

 

These new additions are acknowledged on a panel on the north western sheet on subsequent editions. There were four further editions after this but without geographical change; the only differentiation on these is the address and date of publication recorded on the map.

 

8 - Virginia - Fry Jefferson 1775 - Detail, Gist and Dalrymple additions [USA6107]

 

The first four editions were published as separate publications, or single sheets; their survival depended on being backed on linen and segmented or bound in composite atlases of private collections. Today, they are generally not available to collectors due to their rarity.

 

The example we showcase in this article is state or edition 6 which appeared in the posthumous "North American Atlas" compiled by Thomas Jefferys but published by Robert Sayer in 1775.

 

French and English claims in North America

 

The publication of Fry and Jefferson's map did not go unnoticed abroad; particularly in France. The French and English governments had an ongoing dispute about the distribution of land in the interior of North America. The French grudgingly acknowledged the English presence on the East coast but in 1718 Guillaume de L'Isle published both a landmark and infamous map of Louisiana which showed its northern border reaching New France or Canada, uniting the Gulf coast in the south to the Canadian hinterland in the north under French rule. This infuriated the English, both in North America and England and several English maps were issued disputing this claim. A particularly famous example is Hermann Moll's map of the United States which highlighted these claims and "invited Noblemen, Gentlemen, Merchants &c who are interested in our Plantations in these Parts, may observe whether they agree with their Proprieties or do not justly deserve ye name of Incroachments;"

 

9 - United States - Herman Moll c. 1730 [USA9445]

 

10 - United States - Herman Moll c. 1730 - Detail, encroachment cartouche [USA9445]

 

The western extent of English colonies was initially a vexing question for the government since they would possibly encroach not only on French but also on Spanish possessions, but by 1732, George II granted General Oglethorpe the right to establish the new colony of Georgia theoretically extending from the Atlantic coast in the east to the Pacific coast in the west.  In reality, the English would never be able to support a claim of land ownership stretching from coast to coast but it did lead to Emanuel Bowen's famous map of Georgia, the first map of the new colony, showing its western border reaching the Mississippi River and possibly beyond, published in 1748.

 

11 - Georgia - Emanuel Bowen, 1748 [USA9353]

 

In 1755, John Mitchell, in his authoritative map of the British possessions in North America bore several panels of text quoting early 17^th century English charters which stated that the western borders of New England and Virginia extended to the South Sea or Pacific Ocean.

 

Vaugondy's 1755 Edition of the Fry Jefferson Map

 

Coincidentally, in the same year, Robert de Vaugondy engraved a French version of the Fry Jefferson map of Virginia.

 

12 - Virginia - Vaugondy 1755 [USA9487]

 

The de Vaugondy firm of father and son were a successful commercial firm of cartographers in France. Gilles Robert de Vaugondy was born in 1688 and although little is known about his early life, by 1719, there is a record of his occupation as "geographe" on his marriage certificate. His son, later partner and main collaborator Didier, was born in 1723. In 1730, Vaugondy received a major boost when Pierre Moullart Sanson, grandson of Nicholas Sanson, the father of French cartography, willed the Sanson archive to Vaugondy and two of his colleagues, Jacques Perrier and Jean Fremont. The estate included a house which served as financial collateral to finance the firm's early cartographic projects. Perrier liquidised his holdings fairly early in the partnership, leaving the firm in the hands of Gilles and Jean Fremont. Fremont was in charge of the finances. Although the firm's profits were not spectacular, they were solid and more importantly, they stayed solvent. A further boost to the confidence of the firm was the granting of the title "Geographe Ordinaire du Roi" to Gilles in recognition of his expertise in globe making. This enabled him to add this title to all his maps in the cartouche, announcing royal recognition of his work. It is not known if this title gave him additional access to government archives but it must have helped in his networking and promotion.  

 

Vaugondy's first atlas was the highly popular "Atlas Portatif et Militaire", a small compact work issued in 1748. It proved such a success that an expanded edition was issued in 1749. It also encouraged the firm to embark on their most ambitious project, the "Atlas Universel" which began preparation in 1750. It was a large folio work combining the precision so prized by French cartographers and pioneered by Nicholas Sanson. However, in a nod to popular taste, Vaugondy added a certain level of decoration to the maps which was not encouraged by their more academic contemporary colleagues such as D'Anville and Buache. This was in the form of finely engraved cartouches.

 

The atlas was issued in parts by subscription and was finally completed in 1757; within the section focused on the New World, is the map of Virginia based on Fry and Jefferson mentioned above.  

 

The cartouche gives Fry and Jefferson full credit: "Carte de la Virginie et du Maryland, dressee sur la grande carte Angloise de Mrs Josue Fry et Pierre Jefferson". They are mentioned by name which was unusual for the atlas. None of the other maps bear this distinction. On the surface, the maps look the same, particularly if one matches the geography. Although the map has been reduced to be bound into a folio atlas, it still bears the same details, including the name of the plantation owners and the locations of their homes, the names of the counties as well as the newly discovered geographical detail in the west although Vaugondy omits to add the names of Gist and Dalrymple. There are some minor differences: the name Belhaven is present but not its alternative, Alexandria; in northwest Virginia, Frederic substitutes the names Fredericktown or Winchester on the original Fry and Jefferson map; but broadly speaking, Vaugondy follows the geography of the English map quite closely.

 

13 - Virginia - Vaugondy 1755 - Detail, cartouche [USA9487]

 

Geopolitically however, there are crucial differences. The first is their use of original colour. On the Fry and Jefferson map, the colour is quite subdued and does not extend to the far west; it is mostly confined to the delineation of rivers or sea shore. It is also used to note only the borders between Virginia and North Carolina and Maryland and Virginia. The border between Maryland and Pennsylvania is vague. The Fairfax Line in the northwest is left uncoloured.

 

On the Vaugondy map, the colour is far more prominent. The bright, bold reds, greens and yellows clearly delineate the divisions between Virginia, Maryland, North Carolina, Pennsylvania and the Fairfax Land.

 

Crucially, Vaugondy also adds one final border. In the west, a line runs along the Allegheny Mountains, adding a western border to Virginia which is not present on the original Fry and Jefferson map.  To emphasize this change, Vaugondy adds the name "Louisiana" beyond this line.

 

14 - Virginia - Vaugondy 1755 - Detail, western border (north) [USA9487]	15 - Virginia - Vaugondy 1755 - Detail, western border (south) [USA9487]

 

 

There is one more highly interesting change.  Possibly the westernmost homestead on both maps is marked as "Foyle".  This is a reference to the settler Robert Foyle.

 

In 1753, a raid by the Ottaway Indians, allies of the French in North America, attacked his homestead and killed him, his wife and five of their six children. This is perceived as one of the flashpoints which initiated the French Indian War.

 

On the Fry Jefferson map, the homestead is marked together with a note: "Foyle murdered Novr. 1753." The Vaugondy map just bears the name "Foyle" with no accompanying note. This suggests a very careful perusal of the Fry and Jefferson map together with a selective dissemination of information to the French public.

 

16 - Virginia - Fry Jefferson 1775 - Detail, Foyle Homestead [USA6107]	17 - Virginia - Vaugondy 1755 - Detail, Foyle Homestead [USA9487]

 

Suddenly, the use of Fry and Jefferson's names on the cartouche acquires a different implication; it is as if Vaugondy was correcting their map hence legitimising French claims beyond the Allegheny mountain range as Louisiana. It also explains the rather odd inclusion of the map within the "Atlas Universel."  The work was already well supplied with maps of the United States: it included a map of the whole of North America, a map of New France or Canada with a large inset of the Great Lakes region and a very fine map of the mid-Atlantic States which duplicated much of the coverage of the Fry Jefferson map albeit on a large scale.

 

However, this inclusion makes far greater sense if put into a political context: in 1756, the English and French embarked upon what would become the Seven Years War. One of the major theaters of this war would be North America, which actually gained a different name there, the "French Indian War".  One of the overriding "casus belli" were rival French and English territorial claims within North America.  The Fry Jefferson map did not affix a western border to Virginia; the Vaugondy map provided one.

 

Publication history of Vaugondy's map

 

Vaugondy's atlas proved popular. At least five different versions or "states" of the map of Virginia have been identified suggesting at least five different printings of the atlas over a period of nearly fifty years. The geographical changes, if any, are insignificant: there are variations in the nomenclature on the cartouche, especially in the changes or even complete removal of the title "Geographe Ordinaire du Roi." The last issue of the map was posthumous and has been dated to c. 1793. Gilles died in 1766 while Didier died in 1786. The business eventually passed on to the lawyer Charles Delamarche, who continued to revise, edit and compile Vaugondy atlases into the early 19^th century. 

 

The geo-political changes on the maps are far more dramatic though. Again, through the use of original colour, several extremely peculiar cartographic interpretations are brought to the fore. This is most apparent in the highly unusual second state of the map which has been tentatively dated to c.1776.  

 

 

Vaugondy's Virginia - 2^nd State

 

The geopolitical configuration presented on this second state of the map is quite extraordinary. The border between Maryland and Pennsylvania now extends all the way beyond the western edge of the map. A large part of the Northern Neck Proprietary or Fairfax Grant is now part of Maryland. The western border of what was the Fairfax Grant now runs along the Shenandoah River until the former Fairfax Line where it ceases but the line continues to extend to the Atlantic via the James River. The rest of the territory, now enclosed in yellow, bears both the names of both Louisiana and Virginia and extends all the way to the Atlantic Ocean. The western border has been removed.

 

The third state of this map, published only two years later c. 1778, reverts to using the Allegheny Mountains as a western border between Louisiana and Virginia and this continues to the fifth and last state. However, the nomenclature of the "Fairfax Line" ceases after the first state; confusingly the line, in one form or other, continues to be used as a political demarcation despite the removal of its name. However, its application seems to change in geographical positioning and increases in the crudity of its application, particularly in the last state.

 

This territorial confusion would continue for over one hundred and fifty years, with lawsuits over land disputes regularly filed into the 20^th century. These issues would be further complicated by the victory of the United States during the Revolutionary War and compounded by Lord Fairfax's adamant neutrality during the conflict.

 

This fascinating study is to our mind one of the finest examples of how antique maps act as a smorgasbord for history, propaganda, politics, diplomacy and legal studies.